In the Russian Federation, all educational programs are of two types (cf. Diagram):
1. General education;
2. Professional education.
General education is aimed at the intellectual, moral, emotional, and physical development of the individual; at shaping his or her general cultural level; at developing his or her ability to adapt himself or herself to life in society, and at the setting of the foundations which will enable individuals to make a conscious choice of a professional education programme and to cope with it. General education comprises:
1. Pre-school education;
2. Primary general education;
3. Basic general education;
4. Secondary (complete) general education.
Professional education is aimed at the continued development of an individual in the process of which he or she acquires a professional qualification and at the preparation of graduates to exercise a profession. Since in the Russian Federation all programs, except general education programs, lead to diplomas or to diplomas and degrees as well as to professional qualifications and give the right to exercise professions, they are called professional education programs. Thus, professional education covers the following:
1. Vocational education (nachalnoye professionalnoye obrazovanie);
2. Non-university level higher education (sredneye professionalnoye obrazovanie);
3. University level higher education (vyssheye professionalnoye obrazovanie);
4. Postgraduate education including doctoral study programmes (poslevuzovskoye professionalnoye
obrazovanie).
LANGUAGES OF INSTRUCTION
The principal language of instruction is Russian. The study of Russian as the state language of the Russian Federation in all State-accredited educational establishments, except pre-school institutions, is regulated according to the State educational standard.
The citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to receive their basic general education in their native languages as well as to choose their languages of instruction within the range of possibilities offered by the educational system. The language (languages) in which education and training are conducted are selected by the founder(s) and/or by the statutes of given educational establishments.
FORMS OF EDUCATION
There are different forms of education: full-time, part-time (evening and correspondence course programs), and so-called externat (a form of education that enables individuals to study independently and to take examinations). The Government of the Russian Federation establishes a list of specialties for which part-time study and externat are forbidden. The minimum requirements as to the content of education and to the knowledge and skills of graduates, set up by the State educational standard, do not depend on the form of education, and for part-time education and externat, they are the same as for full-time studies.
The number of part-time students constitutes about one third of the total number of students. Part-time students devote the majority of their time to independent studies. In order to compensate in part-time studies for the decrease in contact time, specific education technologies are used: special instructional materials and aids, forms of distance education, modern communication and information technologies, and individual and collective consultations. The number of part-time students studying in a given group is smaller than that of full-time students.
GENERAL EDUCATION
General education comprises three stages corresponding to the levels of educational programs: primary general education (as a rule, the standard duration is four years); basic general education (the standard duration is five years); secondary (complete) general education (the standard duration is two to three years).
General education programs now comprise eleven years of studies, while before 1985, they lasted ten years. The extension of total duration occurred at the expense of an earlier school enrolment at the age of 6 (7, before 1985). So students normally finish secondary (complete) general education at the age of 17. There are also twelve-year schools for part-time education and education in the arts.
At present, the system of general education includes 66,909 educational establishments in which 20,825,000 students are enrolled. Some 607 private schools have been established over the last years. The official name of general education schools is the Secondary General School. During the last years, new types of schools called gymnasia and lycei (singular: gymnasium andlyceum), that can be state and private, were set up. The duration of studies in gymnasia and lycei can exceed that of Secondary General Schools, and their educational programs can be more advanced.
General education curricula normally stipulate thirty-four weeks of study per year and, as a rule, twenty-seven to thirty-eight hours of study per week. The academic year starts on 1 September and runs through the beginning of June. School examinations are scheduled in June. For certain categories of students, the stipulated period of study can be changed according to the specific State educational standard.
A Basic Curriculum for General Education has been developed which lays down the State requirements as to the minimum content of education and the workload of students. The Basic Curriculum designates the compulsory fields of study (Humanities with a special emphasis on Russian Language, Literature, Social Sciences, and Physical Education; Natural Sciences with priority given to Mathematics; and Technology). The Social Sciences can include such subjects as Foreign Languages, Russian History, World History, Economic and Social Geography, Law, Political Science, Economics, etc. The Natural Sciences can cover Biology, Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Ecology, etc. Technology normally includes Drawing and a number of disciplines for the imparting of certain professional skills: basic skills of general utility for pupils (Home Economics, Sewing, Cooking, Metal Work, Carpentry, etc.) and, in upper grades, basic skills for the exercise of certain professions.
In addition to these required fields of study, the Basic Curriculum provides for disciplines, which could be added because of being specific to the particular region in which the school is located as well as optional disciplines in accordance with the interests of pupils.
In practice, each school designs its own curriculum, basing it upon the Basic Curriculum.
Russia has well-developed networks of schools offering advanced programs, which are based on the Basic Curriculum and can be offered in a number of ways:
- through schools offering advanced programs in selected disciplines such as foreign languages, mathematics, physics, etc.;
- through schools with developed out-of-school activities giving a profound mastery of fine arts, philosophy, economics, sports, and other fields;
- through schools in which senior grades work under the auspices (and tutorship) of higher education institutions and use the academic staff and facilities of the latter.
Primary general education and basic general education are compulsory. On the completion of basic general education (a nine-year programme), students take final examinations (the procedure is called the State final attestation) and are awarded, if they pass, the Certificate of Basic General Education (Attestat ob Osnovnom Obshchem Obrazovanii). As a result of the State final attestation, students may or may not be encouraged to continue their education. The Certificate entitles its holder to be admitted to secondary (complete) general education or to vocational education, as well as to non-university level higher education.
The Certificate of Secondary (Complete) General Education (Attestat о Srednem (Polnom) Obshchem Obrazovanii; before 1993, the Attestat о Srednem Obrazovanii - Certificate of Secondary Education) is awarded after the completion of an eleven-year school programme and the successful passing of the State final attestation (final examinations). The number of disciplines subject to final examinations should not be fewer than five: two federal compulsory written examinations (composition and mathematics) and no less than three optional examinations at the choice of the student. In addition to the results of the final examinations, school leaving certificates include a supplement listing the grades obtained by students in all the subjects taught during the whole period of education. The old version of the certificate (Attestat о Srednem Obrazovanii) has no supplement, and the grades are listed on the certificate itself. The number of subjects may vary from seventeen to twenty. Final and annual examinations are two-thirds written and one-third oral; examinations taken during the learning process are in the reversed proportion.
The school-leaving certificate (Certificate of Secondary (Complete) General Education) entitles its holder to pursue professional education: either vocational education or both non-university and university level higher education.
In the last few years, numerous private schools have been established. The authorization to grant nationally recognized certificates (certificates of the State format) is linked to success in the State accreditation procedures. Certificates awarded by non-accredited institutions (of non-State format) do not grant the right to be admitted to higher education institutions.
HIGHER EDUCATION
There are two kinds of higher education in the Russian Federation:
- Non-university level higher education (educational programs not leading to academic degrees);
- University level higher education (educational programs leading to academic degrees).
Despite the different levels of education, these two kinds of higher education have the following common features: the lists of specialties available through both kinds of higher education are interlinked; the educational programs are convergent in particular with regard to the list and the Volume of specialized disciplines; state requirements as to the minimum content of education and to the knowledge and skills of graduates are developed for both kinds of higher education on the basis of secondary (complete) general education; teaching technologies typical of universities are introduced in non-university level higher education.
University Level Higher Education
According to the Standard Statute for University Level Higher Education Establishments adopted by the Government of the Russian Federation on 26 June 1993 and based on the Law On Education, higher education in the country is built upon the following typology of establishments:
Universities: higher education institutions the activities of which are aimed at the development of education, science, and culture through the conducting of fundamental and applied research and the offering of training programs at all levels of higher, postgraduate, and continuing education in a wide range of natural and social sciences and the humanities. A university must be the leading research and methodological centre in the areas of its activity. Universities are now subdivided into the following groups:
- Universities for Humanities and Sciences;
- Pedagogical Universities (former Pedagogical Institutes);
- Medical Universities (former Medical Institutes);
- Agricultural Universities (former Agricultural Institutes);
- Technical Universities (former Polytechnic and Specialized Institutes);
Academies: higher education institutions the activities of which are aimed at the development of education, science, and culture through the conducting of fundamental and applied research and the offering of training programs at all levels of higher, postgraduate, and continuing education in a single major area of science, technology, or culture. An academy must be the leading research and methodological centre in its area of activity.
Institutes: independent higher education institutions or divisions of universities or academies, which offer educational programs at all levels of higher, postgraduate, and continuing education in a number of fields of science, technology, and culture and conduct research.
This new typology is replacing the old typology of the former Soviet Union, in which higher education institutions consisted of the following types of establishment:
- Universities - typically offering a broad range of disciplines especially in the humanities and the sciences;
- Polytechnic Institutes - typically offering a variety of technological disciplines;
- Specialized Institutes - typically offering education in only one major discipline, for example, medicine, agriculture, economics, teacher education, etc.
The transformation of the old institutions into new institutional types is still in progress. Former Polytechnic Institutes and Specialized Institutes are still trying to broaden their programs and are being renamed Universities or Academies.
Admission Requirements:
Traditionally, a diploma granting admission to university level higher education institutions may be earned at institutions offering secondary (complete) general education and non-university level higher education.
Admission to higher education establishments is competitive. The selection is based on entrance examinations, school leaving certificates, interviews, etc. The entrance examinations are the major component of the selection procedure. The number and the list of entrance tests are stipulated by the admission regulations of given educational institutions. The subjects of the entrance examinations are set by the individual institutions according to the requirements of the faculties to which admission is sought.
Course Program Structure:
Since 1992, Russian higher education has had a multi-level structure, and higher education institutions may confer the following degrees and diplomas:
Intermediate Diploma (at least two years of study); Bakalavr Diploma (at least four years of study); Specialist Diploma(five to six years of study); Magistr Diploma (six years of study).
In order to establish the relationship between these qualifications in the future, the Government of the Russian Federation adopted the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of 12 August 1994. It designates three levels of studies:
Level 1 comprises the first two years of studies for the Bakalavr or Specialist Diplomas and is concentrated on compulsory fundamental courses in the given speciality. After mis period, students may either continue their studies or, if they do not want to do so, leave the institution with an Intermediate Diploma;
Level 2 is the continuation of studies for the Bakalavr degree the duration of which is at least another two years. It leads to the four-year Bakalavr degree;
Level 3 represents an educational level common both to the Magistr Diploma and to the Specialist Diploma. Magistr degree programs are based on Bakalavr degree programs, while Specialist Diploma programs are not.
The Intermediate Diploma
The first function of the Intermediate Diploma (Diplom о nepolnom vysshem obrazovanii) awarded after at least two years of studies for the Bakalavr or Specialist Diplomas, is to certify that the student has successfully finished the first two years of basic higher education in a particular field of study.
This Diploma is conferred in all fields of study. Courses follow a curriculum that imparts the fundamental contents of the education offered in the appropriate field of study. The Diploma is not a degree; it is only an intermediate qualification. However, the Diploma gives its holder the right to exercise a professional activity in accordance with the level of education it represents. The Diploma is issued at the request of the student. The Diploma supplement lists; the results of the normal examinations taken during the first two years of study. The Intermediate Diploma is called upon to facilitate mobility among the different types of higher education institutions.
The Bakalavr Degree
The Bakalavr degree is conferred after at least a four-year course of study. Bakalavr programs can cover all disciplines except medicine. The function of the Bakalavr degree is to provide a more academically rather than professionally oriented education. The Bakalavr degree is a prerequisite for admission to Magistr studies.
Defense of the thesis Bakalavr programs reflect the State educational standard regarding the state requirements for the compulsory minimum of the content of education for the Bakalavr degree in the appropriate field of study. In the meantime, the State Committee for Higher Education has published for the Bakalavr degree the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education, Moscow, 1995, that describes the structure, aims, and contents of education. Each Bakalavr programme contains a defined portion of fundamental education with courses taken from the humanities, the social sciences and economics, and the natural sciences. The continuing stages provide basic professional and specialized education as well as fieldwork relating to professional training.
Examinations must be taken and passed at the end of each semester. The State final attestation includes the defence of a thesis prepared over a period of four months and State final examinations. Following a successful attestation, a State Diploma is issued attesting conferral of the Bakalavr degree. The supplement to the Diploma includes the list of disciplines taught during the period of education, the number of hours, the grades, the practical training, and the results obtained on the final state examinations and in the defence of the thesis or project.
The Specialist Diploma
The traditional qualification of Specialist Diploma has two functions. It opens access to professional practice (e.g., to engineers, teachers, chemists, etc.), and it is also the traditional prerequisite for admission to doctoral studies. The qualification of Specialist Diploma is conferred after studies lasting five to six years. The diploma is awarded in all fields of study (specialties).
Students are required to take and to pass examinations at the end of each semester. The State final attestation for a Specialist Diploma covers the defence of a project or a thesis and State final examinations. The procedure for the State final attestation and for the award of the Diploma as well as the content of the supplement to the Diploma are the same as for the Bakalavr degree.
The Magistr Degree
A Magistr program is at least a two-year course programme centered more on research activities than the Specialist Diploma. The license to conduct Magistr studies is granted by the Ministry for General and Professional Education only to those higher education institutions that are accredited and possess adequate academic staff and facilities.
The State educational standard defines only general requirements for Magistr educational programs and not the requirements regarding the content of education. Higher education establishments in Russia interested in introducing Magistr degree programs are free to make their own decisions regarding the contents of programs. The recommendations prepared by the teaching and methodological associations of higher education institutions are taken into consideration.
Access to Magistr studies is open to the holders of the Bakalavr degree. For the holders of the Bakalavr degree wishing to pursue a Magistr programme in the same field of study (specialty), the higher education institutions themselves set up admission procedures (examinations, interviews, etc.). Those holders of the Bakalavr degree wishing to pursue the Magistr programme in another field of study (speciality) must pass an additional test, which reflects the requirements for the Bakalavr programme in the specialty corresponding to the chosen Magistr programme.
Each Magistr program consists of two equal components: the course component and the independent research component. Magistr studies are completed by a State final attestation that includes the defence of a dissertation and the passing of State final examinations. The Magistr dissertation is a piece of independent research prepared under the guidance of a supervisor. The procedure for State final attestation and for the award of the Diploma as well as the content of the supplement to the Diploma are the same as for the Bakalavr degree.
The university level higher education curriculum stipulates thirty-six weeks of study a year. Depending on the field of study (specialty), the proportions of mandatory and optional courses in a curriculum are around the following: mandatory courses: 80 to 85 percent; optional courses: 15 to 20 percent. The total workload of a student should not exceed fifty-four hours a week including class work and independent studies. A student's total workload of class work is, on average, twenty-seven hours a week (for the Magistr programme, fourteen hours a week). For part-time (evening) education, class work should not be less than ten hours a week. In the case of correspondence education, students are offered the possibility of having no less than 160 hours a year of contact classes. The academic year begins on 1 September and ends at the beginning of June.
University level higher education diplomas (the Bakalavr Diploma, the Specialist Diploma, and the Magistr Diploma) give their holders the right to exercise professional activities in accordance with the qualifications indicated on the diplomas. Specialist and Magistr Diplomas entitle their holders to be admitted to doctoral study programs.
DOCTORAL PROGRAMMES
The hierarchy of advanced degrees in Russia traditionally includes doctor's degrees of two levels: the Candidate of Sciences (Kandidat Nauk) and the Doctor of Sciences (Doktor Nauk). The Candidate of Sciences degree normally requires at least three years of study beyond graduation from a university level higher education institution and the award of the Specialist or the Magistr diploma. The Doctor of Sciences degree can be earned after a period of further study following the award of the Candidate of Sciences degree. In reality, to earn a Doctor of Sciences degree requires five to fifteen years beyond the award of the Candidate of Sciences degree.
Both university level higher education establishments and research institutions have the right to set up doctoral study programs. Two national bodies, the Ministry for General and Professional Education of the Russian Federation and the Russian Academy of Sciences are responsible for the general supervision of doctoral studies in higher education establishments and research institutions, respectively. Upon the decision of these two bodies, doctoral study programs (aspirantura - for the Candidate of Sciences degree and doctorantura - for the Doctor of Sciences degree) can be opened in those higher education establishments and research institutions that possess the required personnel as well as scientific and financial resources. Higher education institutions must be accredited, and research institutions must have a license granting them the right to carry out educational activities.
The two doctoral degrees can be earned in two ways: as a result of studies in the aspirantura and doctorantura or independently.
Sources: Mutual Recognition of Qualification: the Russian Federation and the other European Countries / Compiled by Dr. Oleg Kouptsov; Ed. Leland C. Barrows. - Bucharest: UNESCO, 1997. - 134 pp. - ISBN 92-9069-146-8. - CEPES Papers on Higher Education. 2nd Edition is accessible on the CEPES-UNESCO site.
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